The Historical Use of the Mercury Mineral, Cinnabar

Cinnabar, or mercury sulphide (HgS), ​is a highly toxic, naturally occurring form of the mercury mineral, which was used in the ancient past for producing a bright orange (vermillion) pigment on ceramics, murals, tattoos, and in religious ceremonies. Cinnabars Earliest Use The primary prehistoric use of the mineral was grinding it to create vermillion, and its earliest known use for this purpose is at the Neolithic site of Çatalhà ¶yà ¼k in Turkey (7000-8000 BC), where wall paintings included cinnabars vermillion. Recent investigations in the Iberian peninsula at the Casa Montero flint mine, and burials at La Pijotilla and Montelirio suggest the use of cinnabar as a pigment beginning approximately 5300 BC. Lead isotope analysis identified the provenance of these cinnabar pigments as coming from the Almaden district deposits. In China, the earliest known use of cinnabar is the Yangshao culture (~4000-3500 BC). At several sites, cinnabar covered the walls and floors in buildings used for ritual ceremonies. Cinnabar was among a range of minerals used to paint Yangshao ceramics, and, at Taosi village, cinnabar was sprinkled into elite burials. Vinca Culture (Serbia) The Neolithic Vinca culture (4800-3500 BC), located in the Balkans and including the Serbian sites of Plocnik, Belo Brdo, and Bubanj, among others, were early users of cinnabar, likely mined from the Suplja Stena mine on Mount Avala, 20 kilometers (12.5 miles) from Vinca. Cinnabar occurs in this mine in quartz veins; Neolithic quarrying activities are attested here by the presence of stone tools and ceramic vessels near ancient mine shafts. Micro-XRF studies reported in 2012 (Gajic-KvaÃ… ¡cev et al.) revealed that paint on ceramic vessels and figurines from the Plocnik site contained a mixture of minerals, including high purity cinnabar. A red powder filling a ceramic vessel discovered at Plocnik in 1927 was also found to include a high percentage of cinnabar, likely but not definitively mined from Suplja Stena. Huacavelica (Peru) Huancavelica is the name of the largest mercury source in the Americas, located on the eastern slope of the Cordillera Occidental mountains of central Peru. Mercury deposits here are the result of Cenozoic magma intrusions into sedimentary rock. Vermillion was used to paint ceramics, figurines, and murals and to decorate elite status burials in Peru in a range of cultures including Chavà ­n culture (400-200 BC), Moche, Sican, and the Inca empire. At least two segments of the Inca Road lead to Huacavelica. Scholars (Cooke et al.) report that mercury accumulations in nearby lake sediments began rising about 1400 BC, probably the result of the dust from cinnabar mining. The main historic and prehistoric mine at Huancavelica is the Santa Barbà ¡ra mine, nicknamed the mina de la muerte (mine of death), and it was both the single largest supplier of mercury to the colonial silver mines  and the major source of pollution in the Andes even today. Known to have been exploited by the Andean empires, large-scale mercury mining began here during the colonial period after the introduction of mercury amalgamation associated with the extraction of silver from low-grade ores. Amalgamation of poor quality silver ores using cinnabar was begun in Mexico by Bartolomà © de Medina in 1554. This process involved smelting the ore in grass-fired, clay-lined retorts until vaporization yielded gaseous mercury. Some of the gas was trapped in a crude condenser, and cooled, yielding liquid mercury. Polluting emissions from this process included both the dust from the original mining  and the gasses released into the atmosphere during smelting. Theophrastus and Cinnabar Classical Greek and Roman mentions of cinnabar include that of Theophrastus of Eresus (371-286 BC), a student of the Greek philosopher Aristotle. Theophrastus wrote the earliest surviving scientific book on minerals, De Lapidibus, in which he described an extraction method to get quicksilver from cinnabar. Later references to the quicksilver process appear in Vitruvius (1st century BC) and Pliny the Elder (1st century AD). Roman Cinnabar Cinnabar was the most expensive pigment used by the Romans for extensive wall paintings on public and private buildings (~100 BC-300 AD). A recent study on cinnabar samples taken from several villas in Italy and Spain were identified using lead isotope concentrations, and compared with source material in Slovenia (the Idria mine), Tuscany (Monte Amiata, Grosseto), Spain (Almaden) and as a control, from China. In some cases, such as at  Pompeii, the cinnabar seems to have come from a specific local source, but in others, the cinnabar used in the murals was blended from several different regions. Poisonous Medications One use of cinnabar not attested in archaeological evidence to date, but which may have been the case prehistorically is as traditional medication or ritual ingestion. Cinnabar has been used for at least 2,000 years as part of Chinese and Indian  Ayurvedic  medicines. Although it may have some beneficial effect on some illnesses, human ingestion of mercury is now known to produce toxic damage to kidney, brain, liver, the reproductive systems, and other organs. Cinnabar is still used in at least 46 traditional Chinese patent medicines today, making up between 11-13% of Zhu-Sha-An-Shen-Wan, a popular over-the-counter traditional medicine for insomnia, anxiety, and depression. That is about 110,000 times higher than allowable cinnabar dose levels according to the European Drug and Food Standards: in a study on rats, Shi et al. found that ingestion of this level of cinnabar does create physical damage. Sources Consuegra S, Dà ­az-del-Rà ­o P, Hunt Ortiz MA, Hurtado V, and Montero Ruiz I. 2011.  Neolithic and Chalcolithic--VI to III millennia BC--  In: Ortiz JE, Puche O, Rabano I, and Mazadiego LF, editors.  History of Research in Mineral Resources.  Madrid: Instituto Geolà ³gico y Minero de Espaà ±a. p 3-13.use of cinnabar (HgS) in the Iberian Peninsula: analytical identification and lead isotope data for an early mineral exploitation of the Almadà ©n (Ciudad Real, Spain) mining district. Contreras DA. 2011.  How far to Conchucos? A GIS approach to assessing the implications of exotic materials at Chavà ­n de Huà ¡ntar.  World Archaeology  43(3):380-397. Cooke CA, Balcom PH, Biester H, and Wolfe AP. 2009.  Over three millennia of mercury pollution in the Peruvian Andes.  Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences  106(22):8830-8834. Gajic-KvaÃ… ¡cev M, Stojanovic MM, Ã…  mit Ã… ½, Kantarelou V, Karydas AG, Ã…  ljivar D, Milovanovic D, and Andric V. 2012.  New evidence for the use of cinnabar as a   Journal of Archaeological Science  39(4):1025-1033.colouring pigment in the Vinca culture. Mazzocchin GA, Baraldi P, and Barbante C. 2008.  Isotopic analysis of lead present in the cinnabar of Roman wall paintings from the Xth   Talanta  74(4):690-693.Regio (Venetia et Histria) by ICP-MS. Shi J-Z, Kang F, Wu Q, Lu Y-F, Liu J, and Kang YJ. 2011.  Nephrotoxicity of mercuric chloride, methylmercury and cinnabar-containing Zhu-Sha-An-Shen-Wan in rats.  Toxicology Letters  200(3):194-200. Svensson M, Dà ¼ker A, and Allard B. 2006.  Formation of cinnabar—estimation of   Journal of Hazardous Materials  136(3):830-836.favourable conditions in a proposed Swedish repository. Takacs L. 2000.  Quicksilver from cinnabar: The first documented mechanochemical reaction?  JOM Journal of the Minerals, Metals   52(1):12-13.and Materials Society

Marketing Concepts - 1469 Words

LIST OF SIX MARKETING CONCEPTS Following are the six concepts of marketing †¢ Production concept †¢ Product concept †¢ Selling concept †¢ Marketing concept †¢ Societal marketing concept †¢ Holistic marketing concept THE PRODUCTION CONCEPT: DEFINITION BY KOTLER: â€Å"It is the idea that customers will favor products that are available and highly affordable and that the organization should therefore focus on improving production and distribution efficiency.† EXPLANATION: This concept is the oldest of the concepts in business. It holds that consumers will prefer products that are widely available and inexpensive. Managers focusing on this concept concentrate on achieving high production efficiency, low costs, and†¦show more content†¦This helps in improving the image of the company. This concept holds that the organization’s task is to determine the needs, wants, and interests of target markets and to deliver the desired satisfactions more effectively and efficiently than competitors Additionally, it holds that this all must be done in a way that maintains and improves consumer’s and the society’s well-being. EXAMPLE: Company known for following the societal marketing concept: Johnson Johnson THE HOLISTIC MARKETING CONCEPT: KOTLER DEFINITION: â€Å"The Holistic Marketing concept is based on the development, design and implementation of marketing programs, processes and activities that recognize their breadth and interdependencies. It is thus an approach that attempts to recognize and reconcile the scope and complexities of marketing activities.† EXPLANATION: In the new marketing environment, companies wonder how to operate compete. Marketers in the current age are increasingly recognizing the need to have a more complete cohesive approach that goes beyond traditional application of marketing concepts. This concept is based on the development, design and implementation of marketing programs, processes and activities that recognize their breadth and inter-dependencies. Holistic Marketing recognizes that â€Å"everything matters† with marketing - and that a broad integratedShow MoreRelatedMarketing Concept Of Marketing Concepts1131 Words   |  5 Pages Marketing is about connecting the value of a product, service or brand to customers or consumer for the resolve of encouraging or selling that product, service, or brand. The concepts of Marketing are: Production concept, Product concept, selling concept, Marketing concept and Societal Marketing concept. Production concept: Production concept deals with production. Customer wants that product which is widely available and has a less price. 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Knowledge About Ionising Radiation Among Dentists Free Essays

Introduction: Dental radiography has evolved over the last decade. The evolution began with the introduction of new changes to the operations of dental radiology. Some examples of these changes include new machines, smaller beam sizes, increased filtration, advanced techniques, faster film speeds and large increases in utilization (White, 1992, 118-26). We will write a custom essay sample on Knowledge About Ionising Radiation Among Dentists or any similar topic only for you Order Now However, concerns do remain about the possible adverse effects of dental radiography on humans for several reasons: firstly, these procedures remain the only common type of diagnostic radiography capable of being performed without intensifying screens, requiring concomitantly higher doses. Secondly, the targets to film distance are short. The third reason is the emitted rays are in near to sensitive organs in the head and neck region. These examinations are among the most common diagnostic radiographic procedures performed today. Based on these examinations, previous studies have concluded an increased risk for salivary gland, thyroid, and brain tumors (UN Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation, 2000, Vol.1). Literature Review According to UNSCEAR 2000 Report (European Union, 1997, 22), dental radiography is one of the most frequent types of radiological procedures. Although the exposure associated with dental radiography is relatively low, any radiological procedure should be justi?ed and optimized in order to keep the radiation risk as low as reasonably achievable (Radiation Protection 136). Dose assessment is recommended to be performed on a regular basis to ensure that patient exposure is always kept within the recommended levels and to identify possible equipment malfunction or inadequate technique (Alme’n, Mattsson, 1996, 81-89). With comparison to adults, children have been found to be more radiosensitive (International Commission on Radiological Protection, 1991, Publication 60). Therefore, increased attention is recommended in supervising children to minimize the medical radiation exposure to children. All radiological procedures carried out on children must adapt to special radiation prote ction measures, which aims at recognizing and implementing possible dose reduction strategies in order to eliminate unnecessary and therefore un-justi?ed radiation exposure.It is the responsibility of the health care professional to provide firsthand knowledge to the patients undergoing all radiological procedures and processes. The dentist can answer queries of any patient with regard to radiation hazards, which can be reliable provided their knowledge is adequate and up-to-date. The knowledge related to radiation is taught during undergraduate training in medical colleges. However, dentists grossly underestimated the proper risk regarding proper use of medical imaging tools and their associated radiation risks (International Commission on Radiological Protetion, 1991, Publication 60). On the other hand, the incorrect information about its safety and effectiveness, is made and promoted by some dentists who are paid and sponsored by the manufacturers of these devices to lecture a nd give seminars promoting their products. The conflict of interest does add extra concern about the safety of these products. OBJECTIVES METHODS The objectives of the study will be to: Assesses dentist’s knowledge about ionizing radiations and their hazard on the patient. Identify the level of understanding regarding use of ionizing equipment’s among dentist. METHODS: The research will assess the ionizing radiations knowledge, risk and awareness among dentists in Australia and Jordan. The approach to this assessment will use a survey that will be distributed to 300 dentists. These are some of the questions that I will be asking the dentists: 1-Name (optional) 2- Sex 3- Age 4- Dental school 5- Year graduated 6- Residency 7- Experience 8- Risks associated with ionizing radiation on human tissue 9- Methods of mitigating or preventing ionization radiation during practice 10- Best practices associated with ionizing radiation HYPOTHESIS The null hypothesis or my expected outcome of the survey results is that of the better hospitals, or the institution of allied health care that provide ionization radiation during practice to have dentists that understand the risks better than other doctors. The other doctors are understood to be in practice in less stellar institutions of allied healthcare. The alternative hypothesis is that doctors at the stellar institutions as well as doctors at the lesser institutions are unaware of the risks associated with ionizing radiation. References White SC. assessment of radiation risk from dental radiography. Dentomaxillofac Radiol. 1992;21(3):118-26. United Nations Scienti?c Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation. Sources and effect of ionizing radiation. Report Vol. 1 UNSCEAR publications (2000). European Union. Council Directive 97/43 Euratom, on health protection of individuals against the dangers of ionizing radiation in relation to medical exposures, and repealing Directive 84/466 Euratom. Off. J. Eur. Commun. L180, 22 (1997). Radiation protection 136. European Guidelines on radiation protection in dental radiology: The safe use of radiographs in dental radiology. European Commission publications. Alme?n, A. and Mattsson, S. On the calculation of effective dose to children and adolescents. J. Radiol. Prot. 16(2), 81–89 (1996). International Commission on Radiological Protection. 1990 Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection. ICRP Publication 60. (Oxford: Pergamon Press) (1991). 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Problem Solving and Teamwork free essay sample

The students who in this group come from different country and the members didn’t know mutually. One of the problems with the teamwork is, however, that a lack of communication can happen. For example, the students have their own language and their English skill is not well, as a result, the students can’t understand all information the group discussed and there were trouble to explain own opinion. Because of this, a lack of motivation to communicate among the members which it has decreased the teamwork efficiency.Another problem is differences in ideas, skills and even beliefs. As the members depended on their own opinion, the debate was fierce. And the group spent more to discussion on one question that there were not enough time to finish all question. Thurs, the result of this assignment got influence. In order to solve the problem there are various strategy that have already been tried in the group. We will write a custom essay sample on Problem Solving and Teamwork or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page One strategy which was tried to solve the problem of a lack of communicate was to get to know one another.In a group of people get to know mutually help members to recognize valve cultural differences, and so the togetherness of teamwork goes up, the communication of group increase as well. Another measure which the group implemented was to ask for help if needed. The members need to ask for help if needed so as to know all information the group discussed and promote the communication. To prevent teamwork problems there are some solutions that one can apply. One possible solution is to team building exercises. It can open communications among the team and help people clearly define roles of all the team members. It is also a good idea to let people know how to work in teamwork. A second approach might be to agree leadership approach, including decision make process. Leadership plays an important role in group when people have differences in idea, skills and motivations. Considering these point, teamwork is good for the study environment, and promote the development of communication. It will definitely become increasingly significant in many situations at study, at work or at home.